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This article will discuss basic definitions of stalking, the elements that are considered to develop classification schemes and the importance of theory incorporation. There are many single-factor theories, escalation process theory, social learning theory and theory of attachment being some of them, that contribute to understanding stalking motivation and behavior, but multi-factor theories in some aspect combine single-factor theories, making them a more sufficient tool in spherically understanding stalking prevalence. Such multi-factor theory is the relational goal pursuit which will be discussed as the only innovative theory for stalking to date. This essay will also discuss the complexity of evaluating stalking typologies and theories accurately, as well as the contemporary and ethical psychological issues that arise from stalking victimization.
To stalk is to maneuver in a noiseless and quite sinister manner. Legal definitions vary but they all have three common elements: a) an unwanted behavioral pattern of intrusion, b) a threat that accompanies the unwanted intrusion and c) the person being stalked feeling fearful (Meloy, 1998). In other words, stalking is a calculated reoccurring and persistent intrusive behavior towards a specific person that will make them feel scared, violated and threatened (Miller, 2012).
Similarly in order to develop classification schemes three characteristics are considered: a) The nature of the victim's and stalker's previous relationship, b) The stalker's mental state and c) The stalker's motivational purpose (Chan & Sheridan, 2020). Such typologies serve an important purpose in practical contexts by providing a way to make sense of the plethora of information on offenses and by posing theories about the causes of those crimes or the purposes of certain behaviors (Parkhill, Nixon & McEwan, 2022). Different classification systems are created for various objectives, and the categories they incorporate will certainly reflect the goals and backgrounds of those who created the system (Chan & Sheridan, 2020). From a psychological point of view mental state prevails in comparison to law enforcement systems, although they both deal with the same data (McEwan & Strand, 2013). Typologies are not all the same in the stalker literature making it challenging, if not impossible, to assess how research done using one classification system might overlap into another (Racine & Billick, 2014), therefore, typologies can be a helpful starting point for guiding hypotheses when evaluating an individual, but theory must take space if research and practice are to advance in a more complex manner (Parkhill, Nixon & McEwan, 2022).
Meloy in 1998 proposed a model supported by the psychodynamic theory that discussed a particular stalking escalation process. After being rejected, a stalker experiences a series of internal states of guilt and anger that can result in violent behavior, sometimes even murder, with the aim of devaluing the target of their interest and reestablishing an idealized fantasy relationship with them (R. Meloy & Hoffmann, 2013); because those individuals who were rejected will be more likely to engage in stalking than those who initiate or take part in mutual break-ups since it is believed that stalking represents an effort to exert control over an ex-partner (Maiuro, 2015). The social learning theory (SLT) proposes that individuals who stalk would be aware of others who have acted in a similar way (differential association), mirror others' behavior (modeling), have pro-stalking attitudes, and weigh the benefits and hazards of stalking favorably (differential reinforcement) (Parkhill, Nixon & McEwan, 2022). According to the attachment theory, a person's adult attachment style is significantly influenced by the nature of the parent-child relationships they had starting at a young age (Creamer & Hand, 2022). Dysfunctional attachment is a potential, although not exclusive, theoretical paradigm for comprehending stalker actions (Civilotti, Sciascia, Zaccagnino et al., 2020). All these single-factor theories can identify specific motives for stalking behavior but since multiple elements may be taken into account, multi-factor theories have the potential to be very beneficial in understanding complex behavior (Parkhill, Nixon & McEwan, 2022).
A multi-factor approach may consider social contexts like the end of a relationship (escalation process theory-rejection), aggravating factors like psychological mental state and substance addiction, as well as underlying psychological vulnerabilities like insecure attachment (theory of attachment) and cognitions that foster stalking (social learning theory) (McEwan, Mackenzie, Mullen et al., 2012). Such theory is the relational goal pursuit which hypothesizes the idea that people pursue relationships because they constitute desired outcomes. To put it in other words, people develop objectives to have relationships with other people to the extent that these interactions are perceived as both desirable and possible (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2007). The individual persists in their efforts after concluding that reaching the relational goal is the only way to lessen their distress. Additionally, they will participate in cognitive justification, which will give their pursuing behavior legitimacy and allow it to persist (McEwan, Daffern, Mackenzie et al., 2017). Idealizing the relationship, interpreting the victim's responses incorrectly, justifying objectively improper behavior, and downplaying its effects on oneself and others are some themes that have been suggested (Parkhill, Nixon & McEwan, 2022).
Reporting stalking victimization is an essential step for research as explained above to take place; it is doubtful that police would become aware of stalker actions without victim reporting. As a result, victims could continue to experience the harms caused by offenders who eventually escape responsibility (Brady & Reyns, 2020). According to previous studies on reporting behaviors, victims will contact the criminal-legal system if they recognize their experience as a crime, believe the unwanted behavior is severe, and have a history of interactions with the offender (Brady, Reyns, Landhuis et al., 2023). Most laws interpret the repeating factor of the course of conduct as at least two unwelcome acts, which is a reasonably consistent, yet overly wide, definition. Asking about a person's number of different forms of unwanted intrusions, with repeated instances of a single behavior, can turn this into a measurement tool (McEwan, Simmons, Clothier et al., 2021). According to research done by The National Intimate Partner and sexual violence survey, 16% of women and 5% of men have experienced some sort of stalking exposure (Smith, Zhang, Basile et al., 2018), while numerous psychological and physical health issues, such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, hopelessness, mood and panic disorders, substance abuse, and long-term health issues, are reported by stalking victims (Boehnlein, Kretschmar, Regoeczi et al., 2020).
In conclusion, there are many theories and literature about stalking but none of it can accurately explain the motives and behavior of stalkers as a consistent pattern; after all the only thing limiting their behavior is their imagination. The diverse and complicated behavior of stalking can result from a variety of circumstances, motives, and psychopathologies. Typologies are very important, but they need to be supported by theory to evolve into something more complex. Many theories focus in one aspect of why a stalker would behave in a certain way. The escalation process theory mainly focuses research on rejection, anger and obsessiveness but does not consider other reasons of motivation like the stalker’s understanding of relationships, something that the theory of attachment includes and vice versa. The social learning theory will look at what are the stalker’s cognitions about stalking but will not consider the end of the relationship or the emotional state of the stalker. On the other hand the relational goal pursuit theory in some aspects combines the very basic elements of stalking typologies and theories like the end of the relationship where rejection plays a major role in stalking attempts and will relieve the stalkers’ distress, cognitions around stalking related to the social learning theory where the stalker will justify their behavior and consider the pros and cons of perusing the idealized relationship and finally the relational goal pursuit theory provides an understanding of why stalking prevalence exists and it is because of these distorted beliefs that possess the stalker, making their behavior legitimized. Moving forward, to understand stalking motives and behavior, theories need to include other theories within them, so they become as complex as the human behavior in order to achieve the desired outcomes from research. Regarding victimization there are some ethical issues to be considered. In many cases the stalker will walk responsibility free and continue to provoke fear and distress to the victim. This leads in victimization having a criterion for measuring and as a result many victims might not report a stalking incident leading them to go through difficult psychological stages where they find themselves alone with a constant feeling of fear and many of them end up with psychological disorders. This raises the question whether repetition alone should be used to define stalking.
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